Just the tip of the iceberg? State of the art of coordinated social media manipulation research

Abstract

Social media environments are increasingly exploited by manipulative actors through coordinated social media manipulation (CSMM) campaigns: the intentional and deceptive orchestration of social media networks to manipulate content visibility and public opinion formation. In recent years, research on CSMM has grown rapidly, and the field lacks a systematic synthesis of empirical findings on observed campaigns. This study addresses that gap through a systematic review of 83 studies sourced from Web of Science and EBSCOHost, each analyzing observed digital traces of CSMM. We introduce a conceptual model that frames CSMM as a three-step process: covert operation, implementation, and influence. Using this model, we map the existing research findings, identify critical gaps, and outline future research directions. The review shows that research disproportionately focuses on election periods, state-backed actors, and text-based content on Twitter/X while overlooking multimodal forms, platform-specific manipulation strategies, and broader geopolitical contexts. Linking online campaigns to offline actors, as well as assessing the impact of CSMM, also remain challenges. Overall, we call for integrative analytical frameworks that incorporate comparative designs, cross-platform and multilingual analyses, and greater attention to the dynamics of audience interaction.